Style Guides: APA Style

If your instructor allows AI-generated content in your assignments, be sure to cite the engine you used. Please see the APA Style Blog post, How to Cite ChatGPT, for examples of how to cite ChatGPT and other AI tools.

Check the sources

Although ChatGPT and other large language models (LLMs) respond in a tone of confidence, it is not uncommon for these models to misinterpret or distort source material, or even cite non-existent sources -- see the infamous example of Google's search AI telling a searcher that "UC Berkeley geologists" recommend "eating one small rock per day."

A staffer at APA describes what happened when he asked ChatGPT to provide sources for its descriptions of brain lateralization and operations:

ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

How to cite ChatGPT

The material you are citing is a nonretrievable output of a computer algorithm. Credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

Example in-line citation:

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

Example reference

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

Provide full prompts and responses

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

Updated February 2025. Mostly taken from https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/how-to-cite-chatgpt

Reference list

Hannah-Jones, N. (Host). (2019, September 13). How the bad blood started (No. 4) [Audio podcast episode]. In 1619. The New York Times. https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/episode-4-how-the-bad-blood-started/id1476928106?i=1000449718223

Webster, M., & Abumrad, J. (Hosts). (2020, September 11). Bringing gamma back, again [Audio podcast episode]. In Radiolab. WNYC Studios. https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/radiolab/articles/bringing-gamma-back

In-line citations

Parenthetical citations: (Hannah-Jones, 2019; Webster & Abumrad, 2020)
Narrative citations: Hannah-Jones (2019) and Webster and Abumrad (2020)

Notes on formatting

• List the host(s) of the podcast episode as the author. Alternatively, provide the executive producers, if known. In either case, include their role in parentheses.
• Provide the specific date on which the podcast episode first aired.
• Provide the episode number after the episode title in parentheses. If the podcast does not number episodes (as with the Webster & Abumrad example), omit the episode number from the reference. Do not italicize the episode title or the episode number.
• Specify the type of podcast episode in square brackets, for example: [Audio podcast episode], [Video podcast episode].
• Write the word “In” and then the title of the podcast in italics.
• In general, end the reference with the URL of the episode. If the URL of the podcast episode is unknown (e.g., if accessed via an app), omit the URL from the reference.

Taken from https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/podcast-references

Updated January 2025.

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/blog-post-references

The Bible and other sacred works

The Holy Bible, English Standard Version. (2001). Crossway/Good News Publishers. 

King James Bible. (2017). King James Bible Online. https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org/ (Original work published 1769).

• Parenthetical citation: (English Standard Version, 2001)
• Narrative citation: King James Bible (1769/2017) 

These are cited in much the same way as other printed books and online resources, with a few special rules.

• These works are usually treated as having no author. 
• When dating your citations, use the publication year of the translation or edition you are citing. 
  • If the work was republished, cite in-line using both the original publication and republication dates.
• When presenting the title of a specific work in a reference list entry or citation, italicize the title of the work.
• When referring to the Bible or versions of the Bible in a general way (as opposed to citing a specific version), do not use italics. 
  • E.g.: the King James Version of the Bible; the New Revised Standard Version; the Septuagint. 
• When citing chapter and verse in the text, use canonical numbering, not page number:
  1. The speaker implores, "Set me as a seal upon thine heart" (King James Bible, 1769/2017, Song of Solomon 8:6).

Annotated versions of the Bible and other sacred works

Kaiser, W.C., & Garrett, D. (Eds.). (2006). NIV archaeological study Bible: An illustrated walk through biblical history and culture. Zondervan.

• Parenthetical citation: (Kaiser & Garrett, 2006)
• Narrative citation: Kaiser and Garrett (2006)

Other notes:

• When a classical work (including a religious work) has been annotated by an editor, the editor appears in the author position of the reference.
• Cite a chapter or verse of the religious work in the text using canonical numbering rather than page numbers: (Kaiser & Garrett, 2006, Genesis 1:20)
• Cite a portion of the annotated work created by its authors or editors using page numbers from the work: (Kaiser & Garrett, 2006, footnote to Genesis 1:12, p. 4)

Religious work references are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 10.2 and the Concise Guide Section 10.2.

Information taken from the online APA style guide, 7th edition. 

Last updated November 2024. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jackson, L.M. (2019). The psychology of prejudice: From attitudes to social action (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000168-000

Taken from https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/book-references

Last updated November 2024. 

In any case, the parenthetical and narrative citations for these works are the same as for a single-volume book:

Parenthetical

(Braddock & Milner, 2017).

Narrative

As studied by Fiske et al. (2010). 

When citing a single volume and all volumes share one title

Fiske, S. T., Gilbert, D. T., & Lindzey, G. (2010). Handbook of social psychology (5th ed., Vol. 1). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470561119 

When the volume has its own title

Braddock, J. H., & Milner, A. N. (Eds.). (2017). Women in sports: breaking barriers, facing obstacles: Vol. 1. Sportswomen and teams. Praeger.  

Citing multiple volumes

Harris, K. R., Graham, S., & Urdan T. (Eds.). (2012). APA educational psychology handbook (Vols. 1–3). American Psychological Association.

• Note: When citing multiple volumes, use the name(s) of the editor(s)-in-chief as the editor name(s), even if the volume editors are different.

Taken and adapted from https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/book-references#5

Updated November 2024. 

Cited much like an ebook, with the additions of the narrator's name and the designation [Audiobook]:

Cain, S. (2012). Quiet: The power of introverts in a world that can't stop talking (K. Mazur, Narr.). [Audiobook]. Random House Audio. http://bit.ly2G0Bpbl/

Parenthetical

(Cain, 2012, 13:45).

Narrative

In Cain's (2012) book... (13:45). 

Last updated November 2024

In APA, your own notes from a lecture are considered personal communications. They are cited within the text of your assignment, but do not get an entry on the Reference list. Put the citation right after a quote or paraphrased content from the class lecture.

Format

(Instructor name, personal communication, Month Day, Year lecture took place)

Example
"Infections are often contracted while patients are recovering in the hospital" (J. D. Black, personal communication, May 30, 2012).

Taken from https://guides.library.unr.edu/apacitation/cite-class

Last updated January 2025.

Personal communications are considered a "nonrecoverable source" -- that is, a work that cannot be accessed by readers. Such sources do not need to be included in the reference list because readers cannot retrieve them.

In most cases, nonrecoverable sources such as personal emails, nonarchived social media livestreams (or deleted and unarchived social media posts), classroom lectures, unrecorded webinars or presentations, and intranet sources should be cited only in the text as personal communications. In the in-text citation, provide the initial(s) and surname of the communicator and the exact date (or a date as close as possible) the communication occurred, as shown in the following examples.

Narrative citation: We spoke with Anna Grant (Haida Nation, lives in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, personal communication, April 2019) about traditional understandings of the world by First Nations Peoples in Canada. She described . . .

Parenthetical citation: According to legends of the Haida Nation, the greatest hero in history was the Raven (Anna Grant, personal communication, February 2019).

Ensure that the person agrees to have their name included in your paper and confirms the accuracy and appropriateness of the information you present.

Taken and adapted from https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/nonrecoverable-sources and https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/citations/personal-communications. 

Last updated October, 2024.

If citing a social media post that is not archived by its hosting platform, follow the format for personal communication. Do not include in your References list.

If citing a retrievable post or page, follow these guidelines.

Example Reference list entry

News From Science. (2019, June 21). Are you a fan of astronomy? Enjoy reading about what scientists have discovered in our solar system—and beyond? This [Image attached] [Status update]. Facebook. https://www.facebook.com/ScienceNOW/photos/a.117532185107/10156268057260108/?type=3&theater

Example in-line citations

Parenthetical citation: (News From Science, 2019)
Narrative citation: News From Science (2019)

Notes

• Use the name associated with the account as the name in the reference.
• Provide the specific date of the post.
• Provide the first 20 words of the post as the title. Count a URL or other link, a hashtag, or an emoji as one word each, and include them in the reference if they fall within the first 20 words. Do not italicize emojis.
• If a post includes images, videos, thumbnail links to outside sources, or content from another post (such as when sharing a link), indicate that in square brackets.
• Describe the post type (e.g., “[Status update],” “[Video]”) in square brackets after any description of attached content.
• Credit the social media site as the site name in the source element and then provide the URL of the post.

Adapted from https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/facebook-references

Last updated January 2025. 

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/book-references

For a source that does not list a date of publication, posting, or revision, include an access date.

WEBPAGE ON A NEWS WEBSITE

Reference list

Bologna, C. (2019, October 31). Why some people with anxiety love watching horror movies. HuffPost. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/anxiety-love-watching-horror-movies_l_5d277587e4b02a5a5d57b59e

Roberts, N. (2020, June 10). Trayvon Martin’s mother, Sybrina Fulton, qualifies to run for elected office. BET News. https://www.bet.com/news/national/2020/06/10/trayvon-martin-mother-sybrina-fulton-qualifies-for-office-florid.html

Toner, K. (2020, September 24). When Covid-19 hit, he turned his newspaper route into a lifeline for senior citizens. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/04/us/coronavirus-newspaper-deliveryman-groceries-senior-citizens-cnnheroes-trnd/index.html

In-line citations

Parenthetical citations: (Bologna, 2019; Roberts, 2020; Toner, 2020)
Narrative citations: Bologna (2019), Roberts (2020), and Toner (2020)

Notes on formatting

• Use this format for articles from news websites. Common examples are BBC News, BET News, Bloomberg, CNN, HuffPost, MSNBC, Reuters, Salon, and Vox. These sites do not have associated daily or weekly newspapers.
• Use the newspaper article category for articles from newspaper websites such as The New York Times or The Washington Post.
• Provide the writer as the author.
• Provide the specific date the story was published.
• Provide the title of the news story in italic sentence case.
• List the name of the news website in the source element of the reference.
• End the reference with the URL.

COMMENT ON A WEBPAGE ON A NEWS WEBSITE

Reference list

Owens, L. (2020, October 7). I propose a bicycle race between Biden and Trump [Comment on the webpage Here’s what voters make of President Trump’s COVID-19 diagnosis]. HuffPost. https://www.spot.im/s/00QeiyApEIFa

In-line citations

Parenthetical citation: (Owens, 2020)
Narrative citation: Owens (2020)

Notes on formatting

• Credit the person who left the comment as the author using the format that appears with the comment (i.e., a real name and/or a username). The example shows a real name.
• Provide the specific date the comment was published.
• Provide the comment title or up to the first 20 words of the comment in standard font. Then in square brackets write “Comment on the webpage” and the title of the webpage on which the comment appeared in sentence case and italics.
• Provide the name of the news website in the source element of the reference.
• Link to the comment itself if possible. Otherwise, link to the webpage on which the comment appears. Either a full URL or a short URL is acceptable.

WEBPAGE ON A GOVERNMENT AGENCY WEBSITE

Reference list

National Institute of Mental Health. (2018, July). Anxiety disorders. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml

In-line citations

Parenthetical citation: (National Institute of Mental Health, 2018)
Narrative citation: National Institute of Mental Health (2018)

Notes on formatting

• For a page on a government website without individual authors, use the specific agency responsible for the webpage as the author.
• The names of parent agencies not present in the author element appear in the source element (in the example, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health). This creates concise in-text citations and complete reference list entries.
• Provide as specific a date as possible for the webpage.
• Some online works note when the work was last updated. If this date is clearly attributable to the specific content you are citing rather than the overall website, use the updated date in the reference.
• Do not include a date of last review in a reference because content that has been reviewed has not necessarily been changed. If a date of last review is noted on a work, ignore it for the purposes of the reference.
• Italicize the title of the webpage.
• End the reference with the URL.

WEBPAGE ON A WEBSITE WITH AN ORGANIZATIONAL GROUP AUTHOR

Reference list

World Health Organization. (2018, May 24). The top 10 causes of death. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death

In-line citations

Parenthetical citation: (World Health Organization, 2018)
Narrative citation: World Health Organization (2018)

Notes on formatting

• For a page from an organization’s website without individual authors, use the name of the organization as the author.
• Provide as specific a date as possible for the webpage.
• Some online works note when the work was last updated. If this date is clearly attributable to the specific content you are citing rather than the overall website, use the updated date in the reference.
• Do not include a date of last review in a reference because content that has been reviewed has not necessarily been changed. If a date of last review is noted on a work, ignore it for the purposes of the reference.
• Italicize the title of the webpage.
• Because the author of the webpage and the site name are the same, omit the site name from the source element to avoid repetition.
• End the reference with the URL.

WEBPAGE ON A WEBSITE WITH AN INDIVIDUAL AUTHOR

Reference list

Horovitz, B. (2021, October 19). Are you ready to move your aging parent into your home? AARP. https://www.aarp.org/caregiving/home-care/info-2021/caregiving-questions.html

Schaeffer, K. (2021, October 1). What we know about online learning and the homework gap amid the pandemic. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/10/01/what-we-know-about-online-learning-and-the-homework-gap-amid-the-pandemic/

In-line citations

Parenthetical citations: (Horovitz, 2021; Schaeffer, 2021)
Narrative citations: Horovitz (2021) and Schaeffer (2021)

Notes on formatting

• When individual author(s) are credited on the webpage, list them as the author in the reference.
• Provide as specific a date as possible for the webpage.
• Some online works note when the work was last updated. If this date is clearly attributable to the specific content you are citing rather than the overall website, use the updated date in the reference.
• Do not include a date of last review in a reference because content that has been reviewed has not necessarily been changed. If a date of last review is noted on a work, ignore it for the purposes of the reference.
• Italicize the title of the webpage.
• Provide the site name in the source element of the reference.
• End the reference with the URL.

WEBPAGE ON A WEBSITE WITH A RETRIEVAL DATE

Reference list

U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). U.S. and world population clock. U.S. Department of Commerce. Retrieved January 9, 2020, from https://www.census.gov/popclock/

In-line citations

Parenthetical citation: (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.)
Narrative citation: U.S. Census Bureau (n.d.)

Notes on formatting

• When contents of a page are designed to change over time but are not archived, include a retrieval date in the reference.

Taken from https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/webpage-website-references

Last updated January 2025.

Schatz, B. R. (2000, November 17). Learning by text or context? [Review of the book The social life of information, by J. S. Brown & P. Duguid]. Science, 290, 1304. doi:10.1126/science.290.5495.1304

• If the review is untitled, use the material in brackets as the title; retain the brackets to indicate that the material is a description of form and content, not a title.

• Identify the type of medium being reviewed in brackets (book, motion picture, television program, etc.).

• If the reviewed item is a book, include the author names after the title of the book, separated by a comma.

• If the reviewed item is a film, DVD, or other media, include the year of release after the title of the work, separated by a comma.

Taken from https://apastyle.apa.org/learn/faqs/reference-book-review

Last updated November 2024. 

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/magazine-article-references

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/newspaper-article-references

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/journal-article-references

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/published-dissertation-references

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/unpublished-dissertation-references

NOTE

1. Guadalupe Navarro-Garcia, “Integrating Social Justice Values in Educational Leadership: A Study of African American and Black University Presidents” (PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2016), 44, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

SHORTENED NOTE

2. Navarro-Garcia, “Social Justice Values,” 125–26.

BIBLIOGRAPHY ENTRY

Navarro-Garcia, Guadalupe. “Integrating Social Justice Values in Educational Leadership: A Study of African American and Black University Presidents.” PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2016. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

Taken from https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/published-dissertation-references AND https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/unpublished-dissertation-references

Last updated August, 2018

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/book-references

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/edited-book-chapter-references